http://www.sciencedirect.com/science...f&searchtype=a
Features of men with anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence: A comparison with nondependent AAS users and with AAS nonusers
aBiological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, United States
Received 12 January 2009; revised 17 February 2009; accepted 18 February 2009. Available online 1 April 2009.
Abstract
Background
Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) dependence has been a recognized syndrome for some 20 years, but remains poorly understood.
Methods
We evaluated three groups of experienced male weightlifters: (1) men reporting no history of AAS use (N = 72); (2) nondependent AAS users reporting no history of AAS dependence (N = 42); and (3) men meeting adapted DSM-IV criteria for current or past AAS dependence (N = 20). We assessed demographic indices, lifetime history of psychiatric disorders by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, variables related to AAS use, and results from drug tests of urine and hair.
Results
Nondependent AAS users showed no significant differences from AAS nonusers on any variable assessed. Dependent AAS users, however, differed substantially from both other groups on many measures. Notably, they reported a more frequent history of conduct disorder than nondependent AAS users (odds ratio [95% CI]: 8.0 [1.7, 38.0]) or AAS nonusers (13.1 [2.8, 60.4]) and a much higher lifetime prevalence of opioid abuse and dependence than either comparison group (odds ratios 6.3 [1.2, 34.5] and 18.6 [3.0, 116.8], respectively).
Conclusions
Men with AAS dependence, unlike nondependent AAS users or AAS nonusers, showed a distinctive pattern of comorbid psychopathology, overlapping with that of individuals with other forms of substance dependence. AAS dependence showed a particularly strong association with opioid dependence – an observation that recalls recent animal data suggesting similarities in AAS and opioid brain reward mechanisms. Individuals with AAS dependence and individuals with “classical” substance dependence may possibly harbor similar underlying biological and neuropsychological vulnerabilities.
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http://www.sciencedirect.com/science...e&searchtype=a
Treatment of anabolic–androgenic steroid dependence: Emerging evidence and its implications
Abstract
Currently, few users of anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS) seek substance abuse treatment. But this picture may soon change substantially, because illicit AAS use did not become widespread until the 1980s, and consequently the older members of this AAS-using population – those who initiated AAS as youths in the 1980s – are only now reaching middle age. Members of this group, especially those who have developed AAS dependence, may therefore be entering the age of risk for cardiac and psychoneuroendocrine complications sufficient to motivate them for substance abuse treatment. We suggest that this treatment should address at least three etiologic mechanisms by which AAS dependence might develop. First, individuals with body image disorders such as “muscle dysmorphia” may become dependent on AAS for their anabolic effects; these body image disorders may respond to psychological therapies or pharmacological treatments. Second, AAS suppress the male hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis via their androgenic effects, potentially causing hypogonadism during AAS withdrawal. Men experiencing prolonged dysphoric effects or frank major depression from hypogonadism may desire to resume AAS, thus contributing to AAS dependence. AAS-induced hypogonadism may require treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin or clomiphene to reactivate neuroendocrine function, and may necessitate antidepressant treatments in cases of depression inadequately responsive to endocrine therapies alone. Third, human and animal evidence indicates that AAS also possess hedonic effects, which likely promote dependence via mechanisms shared with classical addictive drugs, especially opioids. Indeed, the opioid antagonist naltrexone blocks AAS dependence in animals. By inference, pharmacological and psychosocial treatments for human opioid dependence might also benefit AAS-dependent individuals.
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http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/content/me...bstracts/993.1
Class I and II anabolic steroids produce opposite hedonic and rewarding effects in pubertal and adult mice
Paul Brito1, Adhly Huertas2, Blanca Villafañe2, Keyla Ramos3, Dariana Rosa2 and Jennifer Barreto3
1 Science & Technology, Universidad del Este, Carolina, PR
2 Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR
3 Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico, School of Medicine, San Juan, PR
ABSTRACT
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic derivates of testosterone. There are approximately 60 different AAS compounds that can be classified in three classes based upon their chemical structure and metabolites. Even short exposure to AAS can produce mood and behavioral symptoms. In previous experiments, we found that class I and II AAS induce hedonic and rewarding effects in adult mice. Recently, NIDA reported that 1.4 – 2.2% of adolescents ever tried steroids. In this study, we aimed to determine if AAS have hedonic properties in adolescent male mice. Animals received alternate androgen injections in a conditioned place preference (CPP) for 10 days. In addition, anxiety behaviors were measured. Androgens tested were testosterone propionate (TP) and 17-methyltestosterone (17-meT), class I and class III AAS, respectively. Three doses were tested (0.075, 0.75 and 7.5 mg/kg) for each drug. We have found a shift in place preference in animals treated with 17-meT in all doses tested, while TP showed no effect. In exploratory-based anxiety, using light-dark transitions, we found an increase in this parameter only with 17-meT (7.5 mg/kg). Body and gonadal weight were not affected in any of the AAS treatments. Our results suggest that developmental age, hormonal environment and AAS metabolism are important modulators of hedonia and reward.
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